Source repository: descriptions and visual depictions of the appearance of Koxinga's army and Tie Ren (鐵人)

1. Inspiration of Tie Ren (鐵人)

『吊各提督統領班回思明，選練征勦。迨至，集諸將議曰：『先年護國嶺殺敗阿格商所拾衣甲，全身披掛是鐵；所以敢下馬打死仗者，恃有此耳。其如我兵精勇何？今我亦用此披掛，勦殺醜虜，諸將以為何如？』 政王秀奇進曰：『披掛全身穿帶，不下三十觔，虜有馬駝，載穿帶尤易，若至下馬打死仗，戰勝不能追趕，戰敗則難收退。今我兵欲以一人穿帶三十斤步行，雄壯者步伐不難，痿小者未見其便』。藩曰：『須揀選雄壯強健者當之』。甘輝進曰：『岳家軍多自負帶，我朝戚南塘令兵卒兩腳股負沙操練，豈畏重耶？要在揀練得法耳』。時適左戎旗管理大候缺將王大雄，將披掛付其穿帶。雄手執戰椇，步伐整齊，如赴敵狀，動履如飛。藩喜曰：『似此可縱橫天下矣』！遂行馮工官傳督造陳啟等日夜製造披掛鐵面，專意為之。諸將亦以為可。』

(English translation by myself) "(Koxinga) transferred (his) commanders and captains back to Siming, (to) train (for the) military expedition. After arrival, (he) gathered various commanders (for a) council (and told them that) 'This (suit of) armour (we) picked up after defeating Akšan at Huguoling last year covers the whole body in iron, that's why (the Manchu) dared to dismount and fight to the death, (for they) rely on this. How well-trained and brave are our soldiers? Now (if) we also use armour like this to kill (the) ugly barbarians, what do you think?'. Wang Xiuqi replied 'The armour (has to be) worn on the entire body, (which) weighs no less than thirty jin. The barbarians have horses and camels and can wear and carry (the armour) easily. (Yet when they) dismount and fight to the death, (they still) cannot pursue after victory (and) face difficulties to retreat during defeat. Now (if) our soldiers want to walk with thirty jin (load), the strong can walk without difficulties, (but) the weak will be burdened.'. Koxinga said '(We) must select strong people (for this).'. Gan Hui said 'Many Yue Fei's soldiers carried (their own) luggage, our dynasty's Qi Jiguang (also) ordered his soldiers to train with sandbags tied to their feet. Did (they) not afraid of heavy weight? The key is to select (and) train correctly.'. By timely coincidence (Koxinga summoned) replacement standard bearer of Left Guard Banner Wang Daxiong and gave him the armour to wear. Wang Daxiong and marched neatly and quickly fully armed like (he was) marching into battle. Koxinga gladly proclaimed '(We will be) unstoppable if we imitate this!'. Thus (he ordered) work officer Feng Chengshi to inform work supervisor Chen Qi to manufacture armours and iron masks day and night exclusively. Other commanders also agreed to (his) idea."

 — 《從征實録》

(Note: It is worth pointing out that thirty jin, or 17.7 kg/39 lbs, was the standard weight of a Chinese brigandine, whereas a suit of lamellar armour would usually be heavier due to heavily overlapped armour plates. It is likely that Koxinga got the idea of fully armouring his soldiers from Akšan, but did not actually copy the armour design.)

2. Helmet

2.1. Visual depictions

It should be noted that of all the Western illustrators of Koxinga's soldiers, only Albrecht Herport (first and second image from the left) was an actual eyewitness, so naturally only his artwork depicts what the Chinese would've worn with any accuracy.

2.2. Helmet with top spike

"On their heads they wear a helmet that covers the entire head and neck, leaving nothing uncovered but the eyes. On top of the helmet sits a sharp peak with which they may easily transfix a person."

— English translation of "Reise Nach Java, Formosa, Vorder-Indien Und Ceylon, 1659-1668." by Albrecht Herport

2.3. Helmet with plume

『他們的頭盔都有一束紅毛，跟所有的士兵一樣，約有一呎長（約三十公分），替代羽毛高立在頭盔上。他們的大刀閃亮如銀，看起來相當古典，好像古羅馬人的樣子。』

— Chinese translation of "Daghregister van Meij" by Philip Meij

"Their lances flashed like silver and their helms, too, each of which had a tuft of red hair around a foot high sticking out."

— English translation of the "Daghregister van Meij", excerpt taken from Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory over the West by Tonio Andrade

2.4. Mask

『鄭兵不動。俱鐵甲胄、鐵面頭子，止露兩足；用長刀砍騎，銳不可當。射中其足，則拔箭更戰；大兵遂敗。』

(English translation by myself) "Zheng's soldiers did not move. (They all wore) iron armours, masked helmets, (that) only expose their feet. (They) used long swords to cut at cavalry, and were unstoppable. (If they were) hit at the feet, (they simply) pull out the arrows and continue fighting, so (our) soldiers were defeated."

— 《明季南略》

『每鎮四協，並火攻領兵計上戰官將一千二百員名。早晚日令穿帶披掛操練二次，慣習如常。惟鐵面晒日頗熱，後不用。操一日，考試武藝一日。』

(English translation by myself) "Every Zhen (i.e. garrison) consisted of four Xie (roughly equivalent to a company), (which) together with fire attack specialists and captains (totalled) one thousand and two hundred personnel. Every morning and evening (they were) ordered to put on (their) equipment to train twice, (until they were) accustomed. Only iron masks became scalding under the sun, and were not used afterwards. (For) every day of training, (their) martial skills were tested every other day."

— 《明季南略》

『今開解偽銅關防一顆，督陣紅旗一桿，高照旗七面，大旗二十四面，鐵盔二十七頂，鐵甲二十五領，甲裙十四件，鐵鬼臉三十七個，綿甲三百六十四領，號布三百六十四塊，腰刀三百一十五把，斬馬刀二十八把，纏頭布六百五十六塊、已經賞兵。』

(English translation by myself) "Now listed are a fake copper border pass, a military superintendent's red banner, seven high-flying banners, twenty-four big banners, twenty-seven iron helmets, twenty-five iron armours, fourteen armoured skirts, thirty-seven iron ghost-masks, three hundred and sixty-four cotton armours, three hundred and sixty-four livery cloths, three hundred and fifteen sabres, twenty-eight zhanmadao, six hundred and fifty-six headscarves, already awarded to (our) soldiers."

— Qing report on captured Kingdom of Tungning equipment, excerpt taken from 《鄭氏史料續編卷七》

『又製鐵面，只露眼耳口鼻，妝畫五彩如鬼形，手執斬馬大刀。每人以二兵各執器械副之，專砍馬腳，臨陣有進無退，名曰鐵人。』

(English translation by myself) "(They) also made iron masks that only expose the eyes, ears, mouth and nose, painted in five colours to the likeness of monster. (The soldiers) carried zhanmadao, each of them supported by two other soldiers carrying their own weapons. (They) focused on chopping horse legs, during battle they would only advance and never retreat. (They were) called Tie Ren."

— 《臺灣外記》

『部署諸將，挑力士，身披鐵鎧，畫以朱碧彪文，留其兩目，執斬馬大刀，陳其行首而命之曰：『但聳立，視馬足而砍之。』 號曰銕人；望者以為神兵。』

(English translation by myself) "(He) reorganised various commanders, (and) picked strongmen (to be) equipped with iron armours painted in crimson and teal-coloured pattern, (only) leaving their eyes exposed, (and) carried zhanmadao. Chen Kui walked in front (of the soldiers) and ordered (them) "Stand ground (and) look for the horse's legs (to) chop them." (They were) named Tie Ren, and people that saw (them) mistook them as divine soldiers."

— 《鄭成功傳》

『那條長街，從海邊直到沙丘，充滿武裝士兵，他們拿著軍旗和旛旗，大部分的人都戴着面具，看起來很恐怖，好像見到鬼怪。以後從他們的長官聽說，那些面具很有用，因為在攻城或者短兵接戰，大家都互相看不到別人的臉，若有人膽怯害怕起來，別人也看不到那人的臉，不受影響而失去勇氣；同時，那些面具也可用來驚嚇滿洲人的馬。』

— Chinese translation of "Daghregister van Meij" by Philip Meij

When he stepped outside, the long street was lined on each side with soldiers, four or six or ten men deep, all the way from the beach to the hilltop encampment. They were fully armed, with bows, swords, and saber-staves. But what most intimidated Meij were the faces painted on their masks. They looked to him like rows of devils. He later learned from a Chinese commander that the masks were designed not just to scare the enemy (they were particularly effective against Manchu horses) but also to prevent anyone—friend or foe—from seeing any sign of fear.

— Paraphrasing of the same record in English. Excerpt taken from Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory over the West by Tonio Andrade

"After saying goodbye to Meij, the envoys were led up the street between the soldiers in their masks, which the envoys described as red-colored ape-faces."

— Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory over the West by Tonio Andrade

3. Body armour

3.1. Visual depictions

It should be noted that of all the Western illustrators of Koxinga's soldiers, only Albrecht Herport (first image from the left) was an actual eyewitness, so naturally only his artwork depicts what the Chinese would've worn with any accuracy.

3.2. Mentions and descriptions of body armour

『每班另募伙兵三名，挑帶戰裙、手臂、披掛隨後，遇戰便穿帶，行伍免勞頓。』

(English translation by myself) "Every ban recruited three additional porters (to) carry armoured skirts, armguards, (and) armours and follow (the soldiers) from behind, (so that the soldiers could) suit up during battle, (but remain) unencumbered during march."

『海逆二十余萬、戰船千餘艘，俱全身是鐵，箭射不透，刀斬不入。』

(English translation by myself) "The sea rebels numbered more than two hundred thousand strong, with war ships of more than a thousand vessels, their bodies completely armored in steel so that arrows and swords can’t penetrate."

 — 《從征實録》

『鄭兵不動。俱鐵甲胄、鐵面頭子，止露兩足；用長刀砍騎，銳不可當。射中其足，則拔箭更戰；大兵遂敗。』

(English translation by myself) "Zheng's soldiers did not move. (They all wore) iron armours, masked helmets, (that) only expose their feet. (They) used long swords to cut at cavalry, and were unstoppable. (If they were) hit at the feet, (they simply) pull out the arrows and continue fighting, so (our) soldiers were defeated."

— 《明季南略》

『二月，挑選各提督壯勇者為親軍，廈門港築演武亭操演。各以五百觔石，力能舉起遍遊教場者五千人。畫樣與工官馮澄世，監造堅厚鐵盔、鐵鎧及兩臂、裙圍、鐵鞋等項，箭穿不入者。』

(English translation by myself) "(In the) second month (of the year), (he) picked strongmen from various commanders as honour guards, (and) built a Pavilion of Military Drill at Xiamengang for training. Each (strongman) was tested with a five hundred jin stone, (and) five thousand people (were) able to raise (the stone) and lap around the compound. (He also) drew a blueprint (to be) given to work officer Feng Chengshi, (who will) supervise the manufacturing of sturdy iron helmets, iron armours, armguards, armoured skirts, iron boots and so on (that are) arrow-proof."

— 《臺灣外記》

『他們頭上戴著閃亮光滑的頭盔，身穿鐵片做成的鐵甲』

(English translation by myself) "They wore polished helmets and armours made of iron plates."

— Chinese translation of "De Dagregisters van het Kasteel Zeelandia"

"Everyone was protected over the upper part of the body with a coat of iron scales, fitting below one another like the slates of a roof; the arms and legs being left bare. This afforded complete protection from rifle bullets and yet left ample freedom to move, as those coats only reached down to the knees and were very flexible at all the joints."

— English translation of "'t verwaerloosde Formosa" by Frederick Coyett

(Note: "rifle bullets" is actually a mistranslation of Middle Dutch "zijdegeweer" which should be translated as "side-arm", referring to a type of sword or sabre commonly carried by Dutch troops of the time. This error was first detected and revealed by myself, although largely owing to the great help given by Peter Dekker of Mandarin Mansion, who is a native Dutch speaker and an expert in antique arms.)

"These Chinese are armoured from head to knees."

— English translation of "Reise Nach Java, Formosa, Vorder-Indien Und Ceylon, 1659-1668." by Albrecht Herport

"The officer told another soldier to model his armor, and the envoys examine it closely. It had iron plates fixed with wire on either side of a heavy cotton cloth. The officer asked if the Dutch had mail like this. The envoys laughed out loud."

— Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory over the West by Tonio Andrade

4. Limb protection

4.1. Mentions of limb armours

『每班另募伙兵三名，挑帶戰裙、手臂、披掛隨後，遇戰便穿帶，行伍免勞頓。』

(English translation by myself) "Every Ban (i.e. squad) recruited three additional porters (to) carry armoured skirts, armguards, (and) armours and follow behind (the soldiers). (So that the soldiers could) wear (their equipment) during battle, (but remain) unencumbered during march."

— 《從征實録》

『二月，挑選各提督壯勇者為親軍，廈門港築演武亭操演。各以五百觔石，力能舉起遍遊教場者五千人。畫樣與工官馮澄世，監造堅厚鐵盔、鐵鎧及兩臂、裙圍、鐵鞋等項，箭穿不入者。』

(English translation by myself) "(In the) second month (of the year), (he) picked strongmen from various commanders as honour guards, (and) built a training compound at Xiamengang for training. Each (strongman) was tested with a five hundred jin stone, (and) five thousand people (were) able to raise (the stone) and lap around the compound. (He also) drew a blueprint (to be) given to work officer Feng Chengshi, (who will) supervise the manufacturing of sturdy iron helmets, iron armours, armguards, armoured skirts, iron boots and so on (that are) arrow-proof."

— 《臺灣外記》

4.2. Mentions of bare limbs

『鄭兵不動。俱鐵甲胄、鐵面頭子，止露兩足；用長刀砍騎，銳不可當。射中其足，則拔箭更戰；大兵遂敗。』

(English translation by myself) "Zheng's soldiers did not move. (They all wore) iron armours, masked helmets, (that) only expose their feet. (They) used long swords to cut at cavalry, and were unstoppable. (If they were) hit at the feet, (they simply) pull out the arrows and continue fighting, so (our) soldiers were defeated."

— 《明季南略》

"Everyone was protected over the upper part of the body with a coat of iron scales, fitting below one another like the slates of a roof; the arms and legs being left bare."

— English translation of "'t verwaerloosde Formosa" by Frederick Coyett

5. Weaponry

5.1. Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀)

『其兵三人一伍，一兵執團牌蔽兩人、一兵斫馬、一兵砍人；甚銳，一刀揮鐵甲、軍馬為兩段。蓋鑄刀時，用鐵匠百人挨遞打，成此一刀；故銳特甚。』

(English translation by myself) "His soldiers (were grouped into) three person per Wu (i.e. team), one soldier carried a round shield to cover the other two, one soldier chopped at the horse, one soldier chopped at the man. (Their swords were) very sharp, one swing (was enough to) split (a suit of ) iron armour (or a) warhorse in two. That was because during the forging of the sword, a hundred blacksmiths took turns striking (the steel) in sequence, thus forming a sword, which is why they were so incredibly sharp."

— 《明季南略》

『有又大又重的關刀、長矛、旌旗和弓箭。』

(English translation by myself) "(They) had large and heavy Guan Dao, spears, banners and bows and arrows."

— Chinese translation of "De Dagregisters van het Kasteel Zeelandia"

"The weapons the Chinese use are side-blades, i.e. big sabres fixed onto shafts used as halberds. They also use bows and arrows."

— English translation of "Reise Nach Java, Formosa, Vorder-Indien Und Ceylon, 1659-1668." by Albrecht Herport

"Some were armed with bows and arrows hanging down their backs; others had nothing save a shield on the left arm and a good sword in the right hand; while many wielded with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man."

"Those with the sword-sticks—called soapknives by the Hollanders—render the same service as our lancers in preventing all breaking through of the enemy, and in this way establishing perfect order in the ranks; but when the enemy has been thrown into disorder, the Sword-bearers follow this up with fearful massacre amongst the fugitives."

— English translation of "'t verwaerloosde Formosa" by Frederick Coyett

5.2. Swords and shields

『其兵三人一伍，一兵執團牌蔽兩人、一兵斫馬、一兵砍人；甚銳，一刀揮鐵甲、軍馬為兩段。蓋鑄刀時，用鐵匠百人挨遞打，成此一刀；故銳特甚。』

(English translation by myself) "His soldiers (were grouped into) three person per Wu (i.e. team), one soldier carried a round shield to cover the other two, one soldier chopped at the horse, one soldier chopped at the man. (Their swords were) very sharp, one swing (was enough to) split (a suit of ) iron armour (or a) warhorse in two. That was because during the forging of the sword, a hundred blacksmiths took turns striking (the steel) in sequence, thus forming a sword, which is why they were so incredibly sharp."

— 《明季南略》

"Some were armed with bows and arrows hanging down their backs; others had nothing save a shield on the left arm and a good sword in the right hand; while many wielded with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man."

— English translation of "'t verwaerloosde Formosa" by Frederick Coyett

5.3. Bows and arrows

『毎班帶班長六员，配雲南斬马各二，牌鋛各二，弓箭则全班俱執。又十班之中弓箭居四，刀牌居六。』

(English translation by myself) "Every Ban (i.e. squad) consisted of six members including (squad) leader, (and was) assigned two Yunnan (sabres and two) Zhanmadao, two shields (and two) spears, whereas bows and arrows were carried by the entire Ban. In addition, out of every ten Ban, four (would use) bows and arrows, six (would use) sabres and shields."

— 《從征實録》

"The weapons the Chinese use are side-blades, i.e. big sabres fixed onto shafts used as halberds. They also use bows and arrows."

— English translation of "Reise Nach Java, Formosa, Vorder-Indien Und Ceylon, 1659-1668." by Albrecht Herport

"Some were armed with bows and arrows hanging down their backs ; others had nothing save a shield on the left arm and a good sword in the right hand ; while many wielded with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man."

"The archers formed Koxinga's best troops, and much depended on them, for even at a distance they contrived to handle their weapons with so great skill that they very nearly eclipsed the riflemen."

— English translation of "'t verwaerloosde Formosa" by Frederick Coyett

5.4. Grenades

『每名兵另帶銃彈三粒在身，遇敵擲擊，俱自此始。』

(English translation by myself) "Every soldier carried three additional grenades, (which they could) throw (at) encountered enemy. (The practice of carrying three grenades) began here."

— 《從征實録》

6. Other equipment

6.1. Banners 

"A quarter of them carry a white banner with a long steel peak, which they use instead of a spear. Some of their banners are long and narrow, like the vane of a ship; these are their victory-banners. Others are like standard vanes. Others again are composed of many pieces and parts of silk in all kinds of colours, with silver and gold and many images, especially of their gods, mainly their joosje, and still others, of devils, dragons and snakes."

— English translation of "Reise Nach Java, Formosa, Vorder-Indien Und Ceylon, 1659-1668." by Albrecht Herport

(Note: "Joosje" was a Dutch term designating a Chinese deity, which seems to had its roots in Javanese joos.)

6.2. Weapon covers

『那帳幕前面有一隊護衛軍，估計約有武裝士兵六百人到八百人，兩邊各列三行，他們帶著許多旗幟，武器用黑色綢緞套著，綢緞用各種顔色的絲和黃金很精緻的綉着獅頭和龍頭。』

— Chinese translation of the diary of Philip Meij

"In front stood around six or eight hundred armored soldiers with scores of banners in three rows on either side, each outfitted in the richest way, their armor covered in black satin that was beautifully adorned with lions and dragon-heads of all colors of silk and gold."

— English translation of the diary of Philip Meij, excerpt taken from Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory over the West by Tonio Andrade

(Note: Chinese translation says Koxinga's soldiers covered their weapons in adorned black satin, whereas English translation says they covered their armours in adorned black satin. Without access to the original Dutch source, it is difficult to determine which translation is more accurate.)

7. What do we know about Tie Ren's appearance

Regrettably, we know surprisingly little about the appearance of Tie Ren other than some general ideas like they were armoured from head to knees, they wore terrifying war masks, and that they were equipped with Zhanmadao as well as bows and arrows. Detailed descriptions about Tie Ren's appearance, such as multiplate helmet with top spike and scale/lamellar armour with rectangular plates, are speculations based from Western eyewitness accounts and illustrations.

However, it should be note that among the primary Western eyewitnesses, namely colonial governor Frederick Coyett, land surveyor Philip Meij, and Swiss mercenary-painter Albrecht Herport, only Philip Meij could've seen Tie Ren with his own eyes, owing to the fact that he was taken captive by Koxinga. Written accounts of both Frederick Coyett and Albrecht Herport focused on describing Koxinga's soldiers at Battle of Baxemboy, of which 240 Dutch musketeers led by Captain Thomas Pedel went up against at most 750 Koxinga's soldiers (exaggerated by Frederick Coyett into 4,000) led by commander Chen Ze (陳澤). However, Chen Ze was the commander of Xuanyi Vanguard Garrison (宣毅前鎮), whereas the famous Tie Ren belonged to Left Tiger Guard Garrison (左虎衛鎮) and Right Tiger Guard Garrison (右虎衛鎮), neither of which participated in this battle. Thus, the armoured soldiers that Frederick Coyett and Albrecht Herport saw were not "true" Tie Ren, although they might have been equipped similarly to them.

This may also explain why Frederick Coyett and Albrecht Herport never mentioned the masks (even though it's highly unlikely that such striking feature escaped notice), whereas Philip Meij and the two Dutch envoys, Thomas van Iperen and Leonard van Leonardus, immediately commented on them. In fact, the war mask may very well be the distinguishing feature that differentiate Tie Ren from regular armoured soldiers in Koxinga's army.

EXTRA: Some descriptions of other soldiers in Koxinga's army

Armed guards, executioners, and freed black slaves

『國姓的六十二個武裝護衛，以及二十五到三十個儈子手，都配備了一根槍桿有三個發射管的發射武器，黑人僕人有的分配大刀，有的分配我們的步槍，都給武裝起來了，這些人是普羅岷西亞僅有的兵力。』

(English translation by myself) "Koxinga's sixty-two armed guards, as well as twenty-five to thirty executioners, were equipped with a fire weapon (which was a) spear shaft with three gun barrels. The black servants were also given arms, some with swords, others with our muskets. These people were the only defenders of Fort Provintia."

— Chinese translation of "Daghregister van Meij" by Philip Meij

Rattan shieldmen

『賊兵均身披綿被，虎皮紋身，手執生牛皮、藤牌者甚多。』

(English translation by myself) "Rebel soldiers all wore cotton blankets on (their) bodies, draped in tiger skins. Many carried raw cowhides and rattan shields"

— Chinese-translated Manchu description of Koxinga's soldiers. Excerpt taken from 《清初鄭成功家族滿文檔案譯編》

Cavalry

"On the sixteenth of June five horsemen rode out according to custom as a mobile guard. When they were not far from the enemy army, they noticed they were pursued by thirty Chinese horsemen with bows and arrows, carrying side-swords as well. When they wanted to turn back, their way was cut off by about one hundred footmen who had been hiding in the bushes. These five horsemen, when they noticed the enemies to the front and at the back, offered a brave fight. But one of their horses stumbled and was surrounded. The horseman however defended himself in a manly way, beating around with his carbine after having emptied it, until he died, having received many wounds. When this was notified to King Coxinga, he had the man buried as a hero and his entire army shot their guns to honour him, even if he had been an enemy."

— English translation of "Reise Nach Java, Formosa, Vorder-Indien Und Ceylon, 1659-1668." by Albrecht Herport